Pysch Exam Chapter 8 free essay sample

Chapter 8 SECTION 1 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS: 1. Psychologists use the term _________ to refer to the ability to store and retrieve information over time. The process of acquiring and using knowledge is called ________. a. learning; perception b. memory; perception c. learning; cognition d. memory; cognition Answer: d; Moderate 2. Psychologists use the term _________ to refer to the ability to store and retrieve information over time. a. learning b. memory c. cognition d. perception Answer: c; Easy 3. The process of acquiring and using knowledge is called ________. a. learning b. cognition c. sensation d. perception Answer: b; Easy . Which of the following scientists could be considered a cognitive psychologist? a. Dr. Abdalla, who investigates problem solving b. Dr. Braithwaite, who studies formal reasoning processes c. Dr. Clark, who examines how people encode information from the environment d. All three scientists could be considered cognitive psychologists Answer: d; Moderate 5 . According to your text, the cognitive approach became the most important school of psychology in the ____. We will write a custom essay sample on Pysch Exam Chapter 8 or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page a. 1940s b. 1950s c. 1960s d. 1970s Answer: c; Moderate 6. Which of these statements does NOT accurately identify a general difference between computers and the human brain? . Computers process information in a parallel fashion, whereas the brain processes information in a serial fashion. b. The brain processes information slower than computers do. c. Whereas computers distinguish between memory and processing, the brain does not. d. The brain is more powerful than any computer. Answer: a; Difficult 7. Which of these statements does NOT accurately identify a general difference between computers and the human brain? a. Computers process information in a serial fashion, whereas the brain processes information in a parallel fashion. b. The brain processes information faster than computers do. . Whereas computers distinguish between memory and processing, the brain does not. d. The brain is more powerful than any computer. Answer: b; Difficult 8. Which alternative correctly identifies a type of memory, a memory stage, or a memory process? a. retrieval – memory stage b. encoding – memory process c. sensory memory – type of memory d. implicit memory – memory stage e. short-term memory – type of memory Answer: b; Moderate 9. Which of the following describes explicit memory? a. Knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered b. Memory of the first-hand experiences that we have had c. Memory of facts and concepts about the world d. The influence of experience on behavior, even when we are not aware of the effect Answer: a; Easy 10. Which of the following describes episodic memory? a. Knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered b. Memory of the first-hand experiences that we have had c. Memory of facts and concepts about the world d. The influence of experience on behavior, even when we are not aware of the effect Answer: b; Easy 11. Which of the following describes semantic memory? a. Knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered b. Memory of the first-hand experiences that we have had . Memory of facts and concepts about the world d. The influence of experience on behavior, even when we are not aware of the effect Answer: c; Easy 12. Which of the following describes implicit memory? a. Knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered b. Memory of the first-hand experiences that we have had c. Memory of facts and concepts a bout the world d. The influence of experience on behavior, even when we are not aware of the effect Answer: d; Easy 13. It is 10:15 a. m. on a mid-semester Wednesday. Three sections of introductory psychology are meeting on the second floor of Old Main. In Room 201, Ms. Romero is describing implicit memory. Across the hall in 204, Dr. Darby’s class is considering the differences between sensory and short-term memory. Finally, in Old Main 209, Dr. Eastwood is writing the terms ‘encoding,’ ‘storage,’ and ‘retrieval’ on the whiteboard. Ms. Romero is discussing memory ______. Dr. Darby’s class is examining memory ________. Dr Eastwood is describing memory _________. a. processes; types; stages b. stages; processes; types c stages; types; processes d. types; processes; stages Answer: d; Difficult 14. Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between explicit memory and episodic memory? . Explicit memory is one type of episodic memory. b. Episodic memory is one type of explicit memory. c. Explicit memory and episodic memory are two different memory stages. d. Explicit memory and episodic memory are the same thing. Answer: b; Moderate 15. Having done â€Å"21 for 21† shots the night before, Deanna barely remembers her 21st birthday. That is, her _________ memory is sketchy. a. procedural b. semantic c. episodic d. working Answer: c 16. Cory knows that the capital of Vermont is Montpelier. This is an example of a(n) _______ memory. a. semantic b. explicit c. procedural d. both A and B Answer: d; Difficult 17. Knowing how to serve a badminton birdie is an example of a (n) ________ memory. a. episodic b. semantic c. procedural d. explicit Answer: c; Moderate 18. Ron moved from Alabama to Georgia ten years ago. â€Å"My fifth-grade teacher made us memorize the names of all the counties in Alabama,† Ron tells his friend Rory. Rory tests Ron by giving him a list of thirty counties – 15 Alabama counties, mixed in with 15 counties from other states. â€Å"Ok, pick out the Alabama counties,† Rory challenges Ron. Which method does Rory’s test use? a. rehearsal b. recognition c. reminiscence d. ecall Answer: b; Moderate 19. An essay question is a _________ test of memory; a multiple-choice question is a __________. a. recall; recall test also b. recall; recognition test c. recall; relearning test d. recognition; recognition test also Answer: b; Easy 20. â€Å"Discuss several factors that contributed to the economic collapse of late 2008,† reads a question on the midterm in an Economics course. Such a question is a ________ test of _______ memory. a. recall; semantic b. recall; procedural c. recognition; semantic d. recognition; procedural Answer: a; Moderate 21. In a memory experiment, Dr. Aziz gives one group of participants a recognition test of a list of words they had seen earlier; another group is asked to recall the words. What might you predict regarding the relative performance of the two groups on the memory test? a. The two groups should perform equivalently. b. The recall group should outperform the recognition group. c. The recall group should outperform the recognition group, as long as the test is given shortly after participants first see the words. d. The recognition group should outperform the recall group. e. No consistent prediction can be made without a consideration of many other variables. Answer: d 22. A typical multiple-choice question on a psychology test is an example of a ___________ test of _________memory. a. recall; implicit b. recall; explicit c. relearning; implicit d. recognition; explicit Answer: d; Difficult 23. Janna is puzzling over a fill-in-the-blank question on a sociology test. Answering the question correctly requires Janna to use ________ memory. a. explicit b. implicit c. recognition d. episodic Answer: a; Moderate 24. Which of the following memory measures is correctly described? a. recall involves retrieving material from memory after it has been learned b. ecognition entails determining whether material has learned before c. relearning involves studying material again after it has been learned already but then forgotten d. Each of these is correctly described. Answer: d; Difficult 25. Which of the following is true about recall memory? a. Involves retrieving material from memory after it has been learned b. Entails determining whether materi al has learned before c. Involves studying material again after it has been learned already but then forgotten d. Involves knowledge of how to do things Answer: a; Easy 26. Which of the following is true about recognition memory? . Involves retrieving material from memory after it has been learned b. Entails determining whether material has learned before c. Involves studying material again after it has been learned already but then forgotten d. Involves knowledge of how to do things Answer: b; Easy 27. Which of the following is true about relearning? a. Involves retrieving material from memory after it has been learned b. Entails determining whether material has learned before c. Involves studying material again after it has been learned already but then forgotten d. Involves knowledge of how to do things Answer: c; Easy 8. With respect to the memory measures described in your text, which of the following statements is true? a. Relearning tests can go beyond correct versus incorrec t b. Recognition tests can go beyond correct versus incorrect c. Recall tests can go beyond correct versus incorrect d. All of the above are true Answer: a; Moderate 29. Relearning measures allow the assessment of: a. procedural memory, such as that involved in playing a video game b. semantic memory, such as that involved in knowing the state capitals c. semantic memory, such as that involved in crocheting a sweater d. oth procedural memory, such as that involved in playing a video game, and semantic memory, such as that involved in knowing the state capitals Answer: d; Difficult 30. â€Å"I know it! It’s um . . . um . . . ,† begins a trivia game contestant excitedly. The contestant is engaged in a test of her ________ memory. a. external b. explicit c. extrinsic d. internal Answer: b; Moderate 31. Memories of which we’re not consciously aware are called ________ memories. a. internal b. subliminal c. subconscious d. implicit Answer: d; Easy 32. Which of the fo llowing is NOT an example of procedural memory? a. |knowing how to play the piano | |b. |knowing how to skip stones | |c. |knowing that your first kiss occurred at a middle-school dance | |d. |knowing how to crochet | Answer: c; Moderate 33. Procedural is to semantic as _________ is to __________ |a. explicit; implicit | |b. |memory process; memory stage | |c. |implicit; explicit | |d.. |short-term memory; long-term memory | Answer: c; Difficult 34. Which of the memory measures described in your text might be used to assess implicit memory? a. recognition b. relearning c. word fragment test d. B and C Answer: d; Difficult 35. Over time, you have learned to salivate at the mere sight of a chili pepper. This type of learning reflects _________ memory a. implicit b. explicit c. procedural d. both A and B Answer: a; Moderate 36. Some psychologists consider classical conditioning to be a form of implicit memory. Which of the following is probably the BEST reason for suggesting that classical conditioning is a type of implicit memory? a. Classical conditioning occurs outside awareness. b. Classical conditioning requires conscious awareness. c. Classical conditioning is one mechanism whereby we learn actions and skills. e. Classical conditioning applies mainly to existing rather than new behaviors. Answer: a; Moderate 37. In an implicit memory experiment, participants are first briefly exposed to unusual, lengthy words in Phase I; later in the week, in Phase II, participants return for a word completion task, in which they attempt to fill in the missing letters of each of a list of words (e. g. , p _ _ _ u d _ _ e). Some of the words correspond to Phase I words; others do not. The Phase I word is termed a _______; Phase II words that also appeared in Phase I should be completed ________ accurately than those that did not. a. prime; less . prime; more c. probe; less d. probe; more Answer: b; Moderate 38. In an implicit memory experiment, participants are first briefly exposed to unusual, lengthy words in Phase I; later in the week, in Phase II, participants return for a word completion task, in which they attempt to fill in the missing letters of each of a list of words (e. g. , p _ _ _ u d _ _ e). Some of the words correspond to Phase I words; others do not. Which pair below correctly identifies the variables of interest in this study? a. Phase I or II—independent variable; whether Phase II words had appeared in Phase I – dependent variable b. Phase I or II—independent variable; word completion accuracy—dependent variable c. whether Phase II words had appeared in Phase I—independent variable; Phase I or II—dependent variable d. whether Phase II words had appeared in Phase I—independent variable; word completion accuracy—dependent variable. Answer: d; Moderate 39. Based on research described in your text (Bargh et al. , 1996), which of the following statements is true of priming effects? a. Priming effects are very small, and have few effects on behavior. b. Priming effects are significant, but have few effects on behavior. c. Priming effects are significant and influence behavior. . Priming effects are significant, but they only influence behavior when one is aware of them. Answer: c; Moderate Which of the following sequences best reflects the order of stages in the three-stage model of memory? a. sensory memory ( short-term memory ( long-term memory b. short-term memory ( sensory memory ( long-term memory c. short-term memory ( working memory ( long-term memory d. working memory ( short-term memory ( long-term memory Answer: a; Moderate 40. Which of the following are types of implicit memory? a. Classical conditioning and Priming b. Iconic and Echoic c. Semantic and Episodic d. Procedural and Semantic Answer: a; Moderate 41. Which of the following are types of explicit memory? a. Classical conditioning and Priming b. Iconic and Echoic c. Semantic and Episodic d. Procedural and Priming Answer: c; Moderate 42. Which of the following statements is true about iconic and echoic memory? a. Iconic and echoic memory are types of sensory memory. b. Iconic and echoic memory are types of explicit memory. c. Iconic and echoic memory are types of implicit memory. d. Iconic and echoic memory are types of classical conditioning Answer: a; Moderate 43. Information may last for _______ seconds in sensory memory; the capacity of sensory memory is _______. . a few; small b. a few; large c. about 30; small d. about 30; large Answer: b; Difficult 44. The study of sensory memory is associated with: a. Elizabeth Loftus b. George Miller c. George Sperling d. Herbert Simon Answer: c; Moderate 45. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, psychologist George Sperling conducted key studies of ______ memory. a. sen sory b. short-term c. semantic d. episodic Answer: a; Moderate 46. George Sperling conducted a study in which he varied the interval between the presentation of a letter matrix and an auditory recall cue. Sperling measured the proportion of letters participants could recall from the matrix. Which of the following statements is FALSE regarding this study? a. A graph of the results of this study would show the accuracy of recall on the y-axis. b. The interval between the matrix and the cue is a dependent variable. c. All the letters in the matrix are stored in memory. d. Sperling’s study provided knowledge regarding sensory memory. Answer: b; Difficult 47. Psychologists use the term ______ memory to refer to â€Å"photographic† memory. a. pictographic b. engrammatic c. iconic d. eidetic Answer: D; Moderate 48. â€Å"She did WHAT † your roommate exclaims as you relate a story about a mutual friend. Your roommate is processing your story in _________ memory. a. working b. sensory c. episodic d. implicit Answer: a; Moderate 49. To which of the following is working memory most similar? a. a legal pad on which you jot temporary notes b. a calendar item reminding you of a future obligation c. a file on a computer hard drive d. a portrait hanging in a museum Answer: a; Moderate 50. On your computer desktop, you can see all sorts of different files, each immediately accessible. Because you are actively working on them, and because you can open them whenever you want, these files are analogous to the information held in: a. emantic memory b. working memory c. sensory memory d. procedural memory Answer: b; Moderate 51. As you work on a complex multiplication problem in your head, the numbers you are manipulating are in your __________ memory, and the multiplication tables you are drawing on are in _________ memory. a. working; long-term b. working; sensory c. long-term; working d. senso ry; working Answer: a; Moderate 52. Process is to structure as __________ memory is to _________ memory. a. explicit; implicit b. sensory; working c. long-term; working d. working; short-term Answer: d; Difficult 53. The central executive is: a. n aspect of sensory memory b. a component of working memory c. a type of implicit memory d. a form of explicit memory Answer: b; Moderate 54. When we look up a number in the phone book, close the book, and then begin to dial the number, we are relying on a. short term memory b. iconic memory c. working memory d. long-term memory Answer: a; Easy 55. __________ examined how long information can last in sensory memory. __________ investigated the duration of short-term memory. a. Peterson and Peterson; Sperling b. Peterson and Peterson; Peterson and Peterson also c. Sperling; Peterson and Peterson d. Sperling; Sperling also Answer: c; Difficult 56. Rehearsal serves to: a. refresh sensory memory b. keep information in short-term memory c. help transfer information to long-term memory e. both B and C Answer: e; Moderate 57. Which of the following describes short-term memory? a. The brief storage of visual or auditory information b. Memory where small amounts of information can be kept for several seconds c. Processes that we use to interpret and store information d. Memory storage that can last for years Answer: b; Easy 58. Which of the following describes sensory memory? a. The brief storage of visual or auditory information b. Memory where small amounts of information can be kept for several seconds c. Processes that we use to interpret and store information d. Memory storage that can last for years Answer: a; Easy 59. Which of the following describes working memory? a. The brief storage of visual or auditory information b. Memory where small amounts of information can be kept for several seconds c. Processes that we use to interpret and store information d. Memory storage that can last for years Answer: c; Easy 60. The conscious repetition of information to ensure its survival in short-term memory is termed ________ rehearsal. . primary b. mnemonic c. rote d. maintenance Answer: d; Easy 61. Which of the following expressions best reflects the capacity of short-term memory? a. one or two items b. unlimited c. about seven, plus or minus two items d. about a dozen items Answer: c; Moderate 62. In the words of George Miller, the capacity of short-term memory is the â€Å"magical number _________. † a. nine, plus or minus two b. six, plus or minus one c. five, plus or minus two d. seven, plus or minus two Answer: d; Easy 63. Tommy is repeating a series of digits in the order in which he heard an experimenter read them. The experimenter is testing the capacity of Tommy’s _______ memory. Tommy should be able to repeat about _________ digits correctly. a. short-term; 4 b. short-term; 7 c. short-term; 9 d. sensory; 4 Answer: b; Moderate 64. Grouping pieces of information together to expand the effective capacity of short-term memory is termed _________. a. chunking b. clumping c. consolidating d. compacting Answer: a; Easy 65. â€Å"What’s your social? † the associate asks over the phone. â€Å"One, six, four . . . † you begin. After a brief pause, you continue, â€Å"seventy-two . . . sixteen thirty-eight. To ease the burden on the associate’s short-term memory, you are giving the number in ______ rather than as individual digits. a. nodes b. clumps c. clusters d. chunks Answer: d; Moderate 66. When you tell an acquaintance your telephone number, you do not recite the digits one by one at a constant rate, as in â€Å"3, 3, 7, 2, 3, 4, 8, 3, 9, 2. † Rather, yo u might say, â€Å"3, 3, 7 . . . 2, 3, 4 . . . 83, 92. † This exemplifies ________, a strategy to enhance ______ memory. a. consolidation; sensory b. consolidation; short-term c. chunking; sensory d. chunking; short-term Answer: d; Moderate TRUE-FALSE QUESTIONS: 7. Explicit memory underlies the ability to swing a golf club. Answer: F; Easy 68. Relearning measures allow the assessment of both implicit and explicit memory. Answer: T; Moderate 69. Primes have little real effect on behavior. Answer: F; Easy 70. Sensory memory can hold only a small amount of information. Answer: F; Moderate 71. The capacity of short-term memory is about 7 items. Answer: T; Easy 72. Chunking serves to increase the capacity of sensory memory. Answer: F; Moderate FILL-IN-THE-BLANK QUESTIONS: 73. Semantic and episodic memory are subdivisions of __________ memory. Answer: explicit; Moderate 74. Scores on a recall test of memory are likely to be ___________ than those on a recognition test of memory. Answer: lower; Difficult 75. â€Å"It’s like riding a bike; once you know how, you don’t forget. † This adage suggests that procedural memories do not require conscious attempts at recall; that is, procedural memories are often ________. Answer: implicit; Moderate 76. Implicit memory is often studied through experiments that use ________. Answer: primes/priming; Moderate 77. You have just listened to your current favorite song on your iPod. You can still hear traces of the final chorus, even though the song has just ended. For a few seconds, the song will be represented in auditory sensory memory, or ________ memory. Answer: echoic; Moderate 78. A ________ is a meaningful group of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short- term memory. Answer: chunk; Easy ESSAY QUESTIONS: 79. Distinguish between explicit and implicit memory. How is implicit memory studied in the laboratory? How does implicit memory research inform the continuing debate in psychology regarding the unconscious determinants of behavior? In your answer, make explicit reference to behaviors that may have important personal and social consequences. Difficult 80. Define and provide original examples from your own experience of each of the following types of long-term memory: episodic, semantic, and procedural memory. Difficult 81. George Sperling conducted classic experiments in which participants were first exposed briefly to a letter matrix; after a varying interval, an auditory tone cued participants to report the letters contained in a specific row of the matrix. The results indicated that iconic memory accurately codes the spatial location of stimuli, and that the information in iconic memory decays after approximately 1 s. Might sensory memory also code other physical stimulus characteristics, such as color or size? Might it code the categorical identical of stimuli, such as whether the stimuli are letters or numbers, upper- or lower-case letters, consonants or vowels, and so on? Does such information decay more rapidly or more slowly from sensory memory than spatial location information? Use your imagination and describe two original experiments modeled on Sperling’s studies that might answer such questions. Be sure to state your hypotheses and to identify the pattern of results that would support your hypotheses. Difficult 2. Short-term memory is limited both in the amount of information it can hold at one time and in how long it can hold information. Describe several strategies one might use to overcome the capacity and duration limitations of short-term memory. How might one use these strategies when studying for course materials? Provide concrete examples. Difficult SECTION 2 MULTIPLE-CHOIC E QUESTIONS: 83. Which of the following sequences best reflects the order in which memory processes occur, from first to last? a. encoding ( storage ( retrieval b. storage ( retrieval ( encoding c. encoding ( retrieval ( storage . storage ( encoding ( retrieval Answer: a; Easy 84. Which of the following is NOT one of the three memory processes identified in your text? a. encoding b. priming c. storage d. retrieval Answer: b; Moderate 85. When we use the term â€Å"remembering† in day-to-day life, we are making reference to the memory process of: a. rehearsal b. retrieval c. encoding d. storage Answer: b; Moderate 86. Amelia remarks that she needs to learn her text’s section on the structures of the brain for an upcoming test. Brian responds that he couldn’t remember the function of the hippocampus on a test the preceding day. With respect to the three memory processes described in your text, Amelia is making reference to _________. Brian is referring to ______. a. encoding; storage b. retrieval; encoding c. retrieval; storage d. encoding; retrieval Answer: d; Moderate 87. When answering such questions as â€Å"Who was your date to the Junior Prom? † or â€Å"Which costume did you wear last Halloween? † you are relying most explicitly on the memory process of: a. encoding b. rehearsal c. priming d. retrieval Answer: d; Moderate 88. Clarice presses a key on her computer to save a document she has been editing. A file is then created on her computer’s hard drive. The computer’s action is most similar to the memory activity of _________. The computer’s hard drive is similar to _________ memory in the three-stage memory model. a. retrieval; long-term b. priming; short-term c. encoding; long-term d. encoding; short-term Answer: c; Easy 89. An investigator asks some participants to count the number of letters in each of the names on a long list of Russian rivers. She asks other participants to pronounce each river’s name and asks, for instance, â€Å"Does it rhyme with Vienna? † (for Lenna). She asks a third group of participants to place the river on a map and to observe into which larger body of water it flows. Which approach memory concept is this investigator most likely interested in? a. context-dependent memory b. schemas c. state-dependent memory d. elaborative encoding Answer: d; Moderate 90. Which statement best expresses the relationship between attention and the memory activity of encoding? a. Attention is a byproduct of encoding. b. Attention is unrelated to encoding. c. Attention is the same as encoding. d. Attention is necessary for encoding. Answer: d; Moderate 91. Drew is unable to recall whether Lincoln’s head faces left or right on the penny. Which of the following is probably the best explanation for Drew’s memory failure? a. The information is difficult to retrieve, because it is stored along with so many other pieces of information in Drew’s long-term memory. b. The information was learned so long ago that it is no longer stored in Drew’s long-term memory. c. The information was not encoded, because Drew never really paid attention to Lincoln’s head on the penny. d. The information was immediately displaced from Drew’s working memory after it was encoded. Answer: c; Moderate 2. Which of the following is the best reason for why we have trouble remembering the license plate number of a car that we just passed ten minutes ago? a. Working memory lasts only a minute or so. b. License plate numbers are too difficult to remember easily. c. We probably never encoded the number in the first place. d. The m emory, though present, is too difficult to retrieve except under special circumstances, such as hypnosis or substantial amounts of stress. Answer: c; Moderate 93. Which of the following defines elaborative encoding? a. Learning by processing in ways that make information relevant b. Learning by processing information in procedural memory c. Learning by processing simpler materials as complex material d. Learning by rehearsing Answer: a; Easy 94. Dr. Fernald is conducting a memory experiment. One group of participants has to decide whether each of a list of words begins with the same letter as a target word; a second group has to determine whether each of a list of words rhymes with a target word; finally, a third group has to determine whether each of a list of words is a synonym or an antonym of a target word. Later, all participants are asked to recall the list words. According to levels-of-processing theory, which group’s performance should be the highest? The lowest? a. highest—synonym/antonym group; lowest—same letter group b. highest—same letter group; lowest—synonym/antonym group c. highest—rhyme group; lowest—same letter group d. highest—synonym/antonym group; lowest—rhyme group Answer: a; Difficult 95. A researcher presents participants with a list of words. She asks the participants to count the letters in the words in Group 1, to come up with rhymes for the words in Group 2, and to produce synonyms for the words in Group 3. Later, she tests the participants’ memory for all of the words. From best to worst, which pattern correctly indicates how well words in each group will be remembered? a. 1, 2, 3 b. 3, 2, 1 c. 3, 1, 2 d. 1, 3, 2 Answer: b; Moderate 96. According to the principle of elaborative encoding, which of the following study techniques would best enhance memory? a. highlighting important passages in the text b. copying the text into a notebook c. reading aloud important passages in the text d. focusing on the meaning of important passages in the text Answer: d; Easy 97. According to the principle of elaborative encoding, which of the following students should retrieve information more successfully on classroom tests? a. Grant, who attempts to memorize his notes b. Harry, who attempts to relate the material to his own experiences. c. Irene, who attempts to relate her notes to information she has learned in other classes d. These students should retrieve information equally well on tests Answer: b; Easy 98. Which of the following statements best expresses the relationship, if any, between elaborative encoding and the self-reference effect? a. Elaborative encoding is synonymous with the self-reference effect. . The self-reference effect is essentially the opposite of elaborative encoding. c. Elaborative encoding is an example of the self-reference effect. d. The self-reference effect is an example of elaborative encoding. Answer: d; Difficult 99. Among the very first attempts to study forgetting scientifically were made by the German psychologist _____ _____. a. Ebbinghaus b. Wundt c. Weber d. Muller Answer: a; Moderate 100. Which of the following statements BEST describes the forgetting function that Ebbinghaus discovered? a. Material is forgotten at a relatively constant rate once it has been learned. b. Material is forgotten relatively rapidly at first, then the rate of forgetting slows down. c. Material is forgotten at a relatively slow rate at first, then the rate of forgetting speeds up. d. Nothing is ever really forgotten. Answer: b; Moderate 101. What does Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve tell us about the way we forget material over time? a. We forget information at a constant rate. b. At first, we forget very little of what we have learned, but as time passes, the rate of forgetting accelerates. c. Most forgetting happens immediately after we learn material; the rate of forgetting slows down as time goes by. d. A lot of forgetting happens immediately after we learn material; the rate of forgetting then speeds up as time goes by. e. We forget information at a variable and unpredictable rate as time passes. Answer: c; Moderate 102. Which of the following best describes the results of Ebbinghaus’s work on forgetting? a. You’ll remember what you learn pretty well for a day or two, but then you’ll begin rapidly forgetting the material. b. Beginning immediately, you’ll slowly forget what you’ve learned at a relatively constant rate. c. You’ll forget most of it right away, and you’ll keep on forgetting more of it, though at a slower rate. . You’ll forget a lot of it right away, and you’ll keep on forgetting more of it, at an even faster rate. Answer: c; Moderate 103. According to the ________ effect, _________ practice leads to better learning than __________ practice. a. spacing; distributed; massed b. spacing; massed; distributed c. spacing; massed; spaced d. distributive; distributed; massed Answer: a; Moderate 104. Erika usually ‘crams’ for tests the night before they are given. Francisco generally studies each of his courses for about 45 minutes each night throughout the term. Erika relies on __________, whereas Francisco uses _________. a. aintenance processing; elaborative processing b. distributed practice; massed practice c. massed practice; elaborative processing d. massed practice; distributed practice Answer: d; Easy 105. Which of the following is true about studying? a. Studying and rehearsing past initial mastery increases interference, impairing memory. b. Studying and rehearsing past initial mastery doesn’t actually hurt, but it doesn’t help either. c. Studying and rehearsing past initial mastery improves short-term retention, but doesn’t do much over the longer term. d. Studying and rehearsing past initial mastery improves long-term retention. Answer: d; Moderate 06. â€Å"I know it! It’s um . . . um . . . It starts with ‘G’,† begins a trivia game contestant excitedly. The contestant is falling prey to the _______ effect. a. tip-of-the-tongue b. flashbulb memory c. source confusion d. retrograde interference Answer: a; Easy 107. Almost everybody has had the feeling of knowing the answer to a question, but not being quite able to say it. This is called the â€Å"tip-of the-tongue† phenomenon, and is a failure of __________. a. retention b. storage c. retrieval d. rehearsal Answer: c; Easy 108. On his psychology exam, Mickey is asked to recall the name of the physiologist who worked on classical conditioning. He cannot quite remember the name, but he knows that it starts with a P and is two syllables long. Mickey is experiencing: a. repression b. proactive interference c. retrograde amnesia d. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon Answer: d; Easy 109. Jamal’s introductory psychology class is held in Room A. For the final exam, the students in Jamal’s class are divided among Rooms A, B, and C. Jamal’s memory for the material is likely to be best if he takes the test in which room? a. Room A b. the largest of the three rooms c. the smallest of the three rooms d. the room most different from Room A Answer: a; Moderate 10. On a test of recall, participants who learn a list of words in one room do better if tested in that same room than if tested in a different room. This finding is best explained by: a. elaborative encoding b. the spacing effect c. state-dependent learning d. context-dependent learning Answer: d; Moderate 111. Ron receives some stock tips when he’s slig htly ‘buzzed’ at an office party. Based on the notion of state-dependent memory, what might you predict regarding the likelihood that Ron will recall the tips the following week? a. He will probably best remember the tips if he is sober. . He will probably best remember the tips if he has had a few drinks. c. He will probably best remember the tips if he is drunk. d. He will remember the tips equally well regardless of his state of intoxication. Answer: b; Moderate 112. Our ability to recall an item from a list depends on where in the list the item occurs. This is the __________ effect. a. serial position b. list memory c. cereal position d. item order Answer: a; Easy 113. How might you describe the shape of the function relating the probability of an item’s recall to the item’s position on a list? a. U-shaped b. squiggly c. linear, negatively sloped line d. an inverted-U shape Answer: a; Moderate 114. A research participant is required to report as much o f a poem as he can remember immediately after having read the poem once. We would expect the greatest number of recall errors in lines: a. at the beginning of the poem b. in the middle of the poem c. at the end of the poem d. at the beginning or the end of the poem Answer: b; Moderate 115. Before going home, Dr. Rosen tries to flesh out his patient notes. He can remember the first and last sessions of the day, but his memory of the middle ones is a bit fuzzy. Dr. Rosen’s memory reflects the ________ effect. a. primacy b. recency c. serial position d. A, B, and C Answer: d; Difficult 116. The primacy effect refers to the fact that a. the most important items in a list are more most to be remembered. b. the last items presented in a list are most likely to be remembered. c. the first items presented in a list are most likely to be remembered. d. the items in a list which have the greatest emotional impact are most likely to be remembered. Answer: c; Moderate 117. â€Å"Cat food, cola, toothpaste,† your roommate begins reciting items into he phone as you throw your books in the backseat and get into your car; youre supposed to hit the store on the way home. He continues to list a few more items. Finally, he wraps up: â€Å"Coffee creamer, spaghetti sauce, dish liquid, and ice tea mix. † You forget a couple of things, but you do manage to get the cat food, cola, and toothpaste. Your memory for these items reflects the ___ ______ effect. a. primacy b. recency c. serial memory d. item order Answer: a; Moderate 118. One evening, you examine the schedule for your favorite football team. The team plays sixteen games each season. Later you try recalling that schedule for a friend who likes the same team you do. Chances are, you will recall opponents at the beginning of the schedule particularly well. What is this phenomenon called? a. the list effect b. the primacy effect c. the consolidation effect d. context-dependent learning e. overlearning Answer: b; Moderate 119. The â€Å"recency effect† refers to the fact that: a. the last items on a list are more likely to be remembered than the middle items b. the first several items on a list are more likely to be remembered than the middle items c. rehearsed items are more likely to be remembered than unrehearsed items d. he most personally relevant items on a list are most likely to be remembered Answer: a; Moderate 120. â€Å"Cat food, cola, toothpaste,† your roommate begins reciting items into the phone as you throw your books in the backseat and get into your car; youre supposed to hit the store on the way home. He continues to list a few more it ems. Finally, he wraps up: â€Å"Coffee creamer, spaghetti sauce, dish liquid, and ice tea mix. † You forget a few things, but the Ragu, Dawn, and Liptons are in the bag. Your memory for these items reflects the _________ effect. a. primacy b. serial order c. list memory d. ecency Answer: d; Moderate 121. Suppose you begin to list all the classes you’ve ever taken in college. Chances are, you will recall your last few classes particularly well. What is this phenomenon called? a. chunking b. the primacy effect c. the recency effect d. memory consolidation Answer: c; Moderate 122. In ________ interference, information learned earlier disrupts the recall of information learned more recently; in _________ interference, recently learned information disrupts the recall of information learned earlier. a. retroactive; proactive b. proactive; retroactive c. regressive; progressive . progressive; regressive Answer: b; Difficult 123. Bruce watches a new television program with en thusiasm. He then watches a second, similar program. Bruce later finds it difficult to remember the details of the second program; he finds that details about the first program keep intruding. What has probably occurred? a. interference b. misinformation c. overlearning d. repression Answer: a; Moderate 124. Nana is taking a Spanish final at the end of the spring semester. The problem is, the French vocabulary she learned the semester before keeps getting in the way, causing her to forget Spanish words. Nana is experiencing ________ interference. a. retroactive b. progressive c. proactive d. retrograde Answer: c; Moderate 125. Which of the following defines retroactive interference? a. Memory impairment that occurs when earlier learning impairs later learning b. Memory impairment that occurs when later learning is impaired by earlier learning c. Memory impairment that occurs when longer lists come before shorter lists d. Memory impairment that occurs in short-term memory Answer: b; Moderate 126. Which of the following defines proactive interference? a. Memory impairment that occurs when earlier learning impairs later learning b. Memory impairment that occurs when later learning is impaired by earlier learning c. Memory impairment that occurs when longer lists come before shorter lists d. Memory impairment that occurs in short-term memory Answer: a; Moderate 127. Owen has trouble remembering a friend’s new phone number; he keeps recalling the old number instead. Completing a rental application, Pippa finds she can’t recall one of her previous addresses, as she’s had several addresses since. Owen is experiencing __________ interference; Pippa is experiencing _________. a. retrograde; anterograde interference b. etroactive; retroactive interference as well c. proactive; proactive interference as well d. proactive; retroactive interference Answer: d; Difficult 128. In a lexical decision task in which participants must judge whether a string of letters forms a word in English, participants are first shown the string BANANA. Based on what you know about categories and spreading activation, whi ch of the following strings might participants then judge the most rapidly? a. APPLE b. ANANAB c. MAVEN d. BANDANA Answer: a; Moderate 129. Research participants are asked to judge whether or not a string of letters forms a word in English. They are first given the string CABBAGE. Based on what you know about categories and spreading activation, which of the following strings might participants then judge the most rapidly? a. CRIBBAGE b. CARROT c. TOILET d. CABOOSE Answer: b; Moderate 130. Participants are asked to judge whether a string of letters forms a word in English. The first string they receive is the word VIOLIN. On a subsequent list of words, results show that the participants are substantially faster at answering â€Å"Yes† to the word PIANO than to the word TOILET or BASKET. Which concept does this result most clearly illustrate? a. pisodic memory b. state-dependent learning c. the spacing effect d. spreading activation Answer: d; Moderate 131. Often, one memory triggers others. Of the following, which is the most likely mechanism by which this might occur? a. spreading activation b. serial activation c. network priming d. distributed processing Answer: a; Moderate 132. Properties that must be true of all members of a category are termed ________ features. a. prototypical b. schematic c. defining d. essential Answer: c; Moderate 133. Mothers are necessarily female. Being female is thus a _________ feature of the category mother. a. schematic b. prototypical c. essential d. defining Answer: d; Moderate 134. A prototype is: a. a group of objects sharing one or more common features b. the first example of a concept that one encounters c. the most frequent or common example of a concept d. the best or most typical example of a concept Answer: d; Moderate 135. Which of the following is most likely the prototype of the category â€Å"fruit†? a. olive b. apple c. persimmon d. blueberry Answer: b; Easy 136. A schema is: a. a conceptual framework for interpreting a situation b. a form of proactive interference c. an important result of decay . an item that has been forgotten Answer: a; Easy 137. Dr. Tranh has given so many lectures that he gives little thought to what he expects m ight happen: He assumes students will assemble, take notes, and occasionally ask a question. That Dr. Tranh finds the process so routine most clearly reflects the development of: a. a semantic association b. explicit memory c. a schema d. a retrieval path Answer: c; Easy 138. Which of the following alternatives best captures the relationship between the concept of a schema and that of a stereotype? a. The concept of a schema is unrelated to that of a stereotype. b. The concept of a schema is broader than that of a stereotype. c. The concept of a schema is narrower that of a stereotype. d. The concept of a schema is the same as that of a stereotype. Answer: b; Moderate 139. Long-term potentiation refers to the process whereby a. the number of synaptic and dendritic connections between neurons increases with experience. b. memories become fixed and stable for the long term. c. neural pathways become activated more easily as learning occurs. d. disturbing memories seem to gain in intensity over time. Answer: c; Moderate 140. The hippocampus plays a role in memory consolidation. Therefore it is probably most accurate to say that the hippocampus is more involved in _________ than in ________. a. retrieval; encoding or storage b. storage; encoding c. encoding and storage; retrieval d. storage and retrieval; encoding Answer: c; Moderate 141. According to your text, one of the key brain regions in explicit memory is a limbic system structure called the ________. a. hippocampus b. hypothalamus c. amygdala d. thalamus Answer: a; Moderate 142. The hippocampus: a. helps encode information about spatial relationships b. helps encode the context surrounding events c. helps form associations among memories . A, B, and C Answer: d; Difficult 143. Explicit memories are to implicit memories as the ________ is to the _________. a. hypothalamus; cerebellum b. amygdala; cerebellum c. amygdala; hippocampus d. hippocampus; cerebellum Answer: d; Moderate 144. The amygdala is to the cerebellum as ________ memories are to _________. memories. a. implicit; emotional b. emotional; implicit c. explicit; implicit d. implicit; explicit Answer: b; Moderate 145. Estelle remembers a night she was mugged and brutally beaten. This memory probably involves her: a. cerebellum b. hypothalamus c. thalamus d. amygdala Answer: d; Moderate 146. Which brain structure is correctly matched with its role in memory? a. cerebellum – implicit memory b. hippocampus – emotional memory c. amygdala – explicit memory d. All of these are correctly matched. Answer: a; Moderate 147. In _________ amnesia, memory is lost for events preceding an injury or accident; in __________ amnesia, memory is lost for events following an injury or accident. a. retrograde; anterograde b. anterograde; retrograde c. regressive; progressive d. retroactive; proactive Answer: a; Moderate 148. Rhonda can’t remember anything about the first several minutes immediately following a car crash in which she was injured. Rhonda is experiencing _______ amnesia. a. retrograde b. anterograde c. retroactive d. proactive Answer: b; Moderate 149. Which of the following defines retrograde amnesia? a. The inability to retrieve events that occurred before a given time b. The inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory c. The strengthening of synaptic connections d. The loss of memory due to the passage of time Answer: a; Easy 150. Which of the following defines anterograde amnesia? a. The inability to retrieve events that occurred before a given time b. The inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory c. The strengthening of synaptic connections d. The loss of memory due to the passage of time Answer: b; Easy 151. Which of the following defines long-term potentiation (LTP)? a. The inability to retrieve events that occurred before a given time b. The inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory c. The strengthening of synaptic connections d. The loss of memory due to the passage of time Answer: c; Easy 152. Omar experienced a dissociative fugue state. He suddenly snapped out of it in front of a pet-supplies display in a Boise, ID discount store; he had no memory whatsoever of his previous life in Greensboro, NC. Omar’s amnesia is best described as: a. proactive b. anterograde c. retroactive d. retrograde Answer: d; Moderate 153. Which of the following is NOT among the neurotransmitters mentioned in your text as important in memory? a. glutamate b. serotonin c. endorphins d. epinephrine Answer: c; Difficult 154. Which of the following neurotransmitters is correctly paired with a description of its role in memory? a. serotonin – the most important neurotransmitter in memory b. epinephrine – released when animals learn c. glutamate – may increase memory for stressful events d. None of these is correctly matched. Answer: d; Difficult 55. Based on controlled studies, which of the following popular memory supplements seems to be effective? a. methylphenidate b. amphetamines c. gingko biloba d. none of these Answer: d; Moderate TRUE-FALSE QUESTIONS: 156. After material is learned, little is forgotten at first, but then the rate of forgetting speeds up. Answer: F; Moderat e 157. Massed practice yields poorer memory than does distributed practice. Answer: T; Easy 158. The primacy and recency effects are components of the spacing effect. Answer: F; Moderate 159. In a list of items, we tend to forget the middle ones rather than the ones at the beginning or end. Answer: T; Easy 160. The most typical member of a category is termed the defining example. Answer: F; Easy 161. The hippocampus is mainly involved in implicit memory. Answer: F; Moderate 162. Popular memory enhancers, such as gingko biloba, are not especially effective. Answer: T; Easy FILL-IN-THE-BLANK QUESTIONS: 163. â€Å"You’ll probably do better on the test if you put more effort into understanding what the chapter’s trying to say in the first place,† one of your professors admonishes the class. You are reminded of the concept of ___________ encoding. Answer: elaborative; Moderate 164. The slope of the function relating recall to the interval since original learning is _________ sloped. Answer: negatively; Difficult 165. When using a software package’s new interface, you keep trying to use the same menus and make the same selections that worked so well in the old version of the interface. You are experiencing _______ interference. Answer: proactive; Moderate 166. A researcher finds that her participants think most readily of a carrot when prompted with the category â€Å"vegetable. † On this basis, the researcher might argue that a carrot is the ________ vegetable. Answer: prototypical; Moderate 167. Rhoda is thinking of a family reunion last summer. This reminds her that a close friend is attending the same college in which her cousin is enrolled; her thoughts then turn to the reading assignments she has neglected in one of her classes. The process of __________ describes how one memory brings up another in our network of mental categories. Answer: spreading activation; Moderate 168. Explicit memory is to implicit memory as the hippocampus is to the _________. Answer: cerebellum; Moderate 169. Leigh wakes up in a hospital. She remembers careening into a collision, but nothing thereafter. Leigh is experiencing ______ amnesia. Answer: anterograde; Moderate ESSAY QUESTIONS: 170. Define elaborative encoding, state- and context-dependent learning, the serial position effect, and the primacy and recency effects. Describe several ways you might apply your knowledge of these phenomena to improve your retention of material in your college courses. Difficult 171. Describe three of Ebbinghaus’ contributions to our understanding of memory. How might you draw on Ebbinghaus’ legacy to aid your memory for material in your college courses? Difficult 172. Identify three brain structures important to memory; describe the specific role of each in learning and memory. Identify three neurotransmitters involved in memory. Difficult SECTION 3 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS: 173. â€Å"I don’t know who told me first, but I heard that Kenny . . . ,† Lana begins, sharing gossip on the phone to a friend. Lana is experiencing: a. anterograde amnesia b. retrograde amnesia c. progressive interference d. a failure of source monitoring Answer: d; Moderate 174. Lydia can’t figure out if she dreamed about a person or whether she met him at a recent party. This kind of uncertainty reflects the limitations of a. source monitoring b. counterfactual thinking c. overconfidence d. heuristic thinking Answer: a; Moderate 75. Orlando swears he remembers the cake and the guests at the party his parents held in honor of his 4th birthday. In reality, Orlando merely remembers the snapshots of the event he viewed in his Mom’s photo album much later in his childhood. Orlando’s manufactured memory reflects: a. the representativeness effect b. func tional fixedness c. a source monitoring error d. counterfactual thinking Answer: c; Moderate 176. People sometimes remember having experienced events they really only imagined. Which of the following phenomena is most likely responsible for this effect? a. heuristic thinking b. overconfidence . misinformation d. source monitoring errors Answer: d; Moderate 177. The ________ effect refers to attitude change that occurs over time as we forget when and where we learned information. It reflects the limitations of _________. a. misinformation; schematic processing b. misinformation; source monitoring c. sleeper; counterfactual thinking d. sleeper; source monitoring Answer: d; Difficult 178. Which of the following is a definition of functional fixedness? a. An inability to use an object in new ways b. A tendency to verify and confirm existing beliefs c. The inability to remember the source of a memory . Attitude change that occurs over time Answer: a; Easy 179. Which of the following is a definition of the confirmation bias? a. An inability to use an object in new ways b. A tendency to verify and confirm existing beliefs c. The inability to remember the source of a memory d. Attitude change that occurs over time Answer: b; Easy 180. Which of the following is a definition of the sleeper effect? a. An inability to use an object in new ways b. A tendency to verify and confirm existing beliefs c. The inability to remember the source of a memory d. Attitude change that occurs over time Answer: d; Easy 181. Nigel often cites newspaper editorials favoring the presidential candidate he supports; he appears to ignore editorials critical of the candidate. Nigel appears prone to: a. functional fixedness b. the sleeper effect c. the confirmation bias d. the representativeness heuristic Answer: c; Moderate 182. Sandy, a true believer in astrology, reads in her horoscope that today is her lucky day. She gets so excited that she spills coffee all over herself, necessitating a change of clothes. As a result, she is late for work and for a very important meeting, which in turn gets her into serious trouble with her boss. That evening, her brother is taken to the emergency room. On her way to visit him, Sandy finds a dime in the hospital parking lot. What does research on the confirmation bias suggest that Sandy will do? a. Sandy will renounce astrology as completely wrong because of all the horrible things that happened on her â€Å"lucky day. † b. Sandy will begin to question her belief in astrology because of all the horrible things that happened on her â€Å"lucky day. † c. Sandy will seize on the dime she found as evidence of astrology’s accuracy. d. Sandy will forget finding the dime because of the all the horrible things that happened to her. Answer: c; Moderate 183. Lou considers himself lucky, while his friend Larry considers himself unlucky. They each take $100 to a casino and play blackjack for 3 hours. When they leave, they have each lost $20. What does research on the confirmation bias suggest will happen? a. Because of their losses, Larry will maintain his view of himself and Lou will begin to change his view of himself. b. Both men will reason that they were willing to lose $100 but only lost $20, so it is as if they won $80; so, Lou will maintain his view of himself and Larry will begin to change his. c. Larry will begin to change his view of himself, reasoning that he was willing to lose $100 but he only lost $20, so it is as if he won $80. Because of his loss, Lou will also begin to change his view of himself. d. Larry will maintain his view of himself because of his loss. Lou will also maintain his view of himself, reasoning that he was willing to lose $100 but he only lost $20, so it is actually like he won $80. Answer: d; Moderate 184. Which of the following cognitive biases is correctly matched with a problem that illustrates it? a. Confirmation bias—Duncker’s (1945) candle problem b. Functional fixedness—Wason’s (1960) 2-4-6 problem c. Availability heuristic—determining whether more words begin with ‘r’ or have ‘r’ as the third letter d. None of these are correctly matched. Answer: c; Moderate 185. Making several minor household repairs, Alyssa uses a shoe as a hammer and a butter knife as a screwdriver. Which of the following statements best characterizes Alyssa’s problem solving? a. She is demonstrating schematic processing. b. She has been released from functional fixedness. c. She is taking advantage of the availability heuristic. d. She is using counterfactual thinking. Answer: b; Easy 186. A jeweler is unable to fix a particular mounting in a ring because she can imagine only the conventional uses for her tools. This best demonstrates which of the following? a. The confirmation bias b. Functional fixedness c. Counterfactual thinking d. The representativeness heuristic Answer: b; Easy 187. Henry’s dog, Sparky, has been rolling in the mud. Henry must bathe Sparky before the dog gets mud all over the carpet. However, Henry is unable to find the plug for the tub. Sitting on the counter right beside the tub is a fifty-cent piece. In his frustration, Henry fails to see that the coin could be used as an emergency plug for the tub. What happened to Henry? a. He displayed heuristic processing. b. He fell prey to the confirmation bias. c. He suffered from functional fixedness. d. His thinking was counterfactual. Answer: c; Easy 188. Which of the following is the most likely mechanism by which misinformation might impair a witness’ memory for the actual events in a crime? a. repression b. proactive interference c. anterograde amnesia d. retroactive interference Anwer: d; Moderate 189. The study of the influence of misinformation on memory is associated with: a. Bower b. Miller c. Sperling d. Loftus Answer: d; Moderate 90. Which of the following is the best definition of the confirmation bias? a. The tendency to verify rather than challenge our existing schemas b. Errors in memory that result from receiving new, conflicting information c. When stimuli that are bright or colorful grab our attention d. When we are more certain of our judgments than we should be Answer: a; Easy 191. Which of the following is th e best definition of the effect of salience? a. The tendency to verify rather than challenge our existing schemas b. Errors in memory that result from receiving new, conflicting information c. When stimuli that are bright or colorful grab our attention d. When we are more certain of our judgments than we should be Answer: c; Easy 192. Which of the following is the best definition of the misinformation effect? a. The tendency to verify rather than challenge our existing schemas b. Errors in memory that result from receiving new, conflicting information c. When stimuli that are bright or colorful grab our attention d. When we are more certain of our judgments than we should be Answer: b; Easy 193. Which of the following is the best definition of overconfidence ? a. The tendency to verify rather than challenge our existing schemas b. Errors in memory that result from receiving new, conflicting information c. When stimuli that are bright or colorful grab our attention d. When we are more certain of our judgments than we should be Answer: d; Easy 194. Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted an experiment in which participants estimated the speed of cars that were described as either contacting or smashing into another. To which of the following conclusions regarding eyewitness memory is this study most relevant? a. The presence of a weapon attracts witnesses’ attention, impairing their memory. . Eyewitnesses confidence is only weakly related to eyewitness memory. c. Eyewitness memory can be heavily influenced by leading questions. d. Child eyewitnesses less suggestible than are adult eyewitnesses. Answer: c; Easy 195. Which of the following alternatives best expresses psychologist Elizabeth Loftus’ position on the validity of recovered me mories? a. Recovered memories are often false. They reflect confusion regarding the source of a memory. b. Recovered memories are often false. They reflect an impairment of implicit memory mechanisms. c. Recovered memories are often false. They reflect a failure of maintenance rehearsal. d. Recovered memories are often false. They reflect limitations on working memory capacity. Answer: a; Difficult 196. Your text states that the salience of a gun draws a witness’ attention away from the face of the perpetrator, reducing the witness’ ability to later identify the perpetrator. This suggests that the effect of the weapon occurred mainly during: a. encoding b. consolidation c. retrieval d. recall Answer: a; Easy 197. Melinda is computing the correlation coefficient between scores on measure of eyewitness confidence and scores on a measure of eyewitness accuracy. What sort of relationship do you think she’ll find? a. a strong negative relationship b. a weak relationship if any c. a strong positive relationship d. a curvilinear relationship Answer: b; Moderate 198. The 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center. Princess Diana’s death. The 1986 Challenger explosion. People’s memories for the moment in which they learned of these events are termed ________ memories. a. snapshot b. flashbulb c. photocopy d. thumbnail Answer: b; Easy 199. Flashbulb memories: a. typically concern major, unexpected public or personal events b. are remarkably accurate, even years after the initial event c. re due to special encoding mechanisms for emotionally charged events d. are more accurate than memories for more mundane events Answer: a; Moderate 200. We are often prone to make judgments on the extent to which the things we observe match our expectations of what we think things should be like while ignoring the mathematical probabilities of the ir occurrence. This error is known as the a. availability heuristic b. representativeness heuristic c. confirmation bias d. stereotypic bias Answer: b; Easy 201. When you use the representativeness heuristic, you are a. aking frequency estimates based on the ease with which things come to mind b. overcoming functional fixedness c. mistaking visual images and other forms of mental representations for reality d. basing your judgments on the extent to which an event matches your expectations Answer: d; Moderate 202. Following the September 11, 2001, Twin Towers attacks, many Americans elected to drive rather than fly: The media coverage of the hijackings caused Americans to overestimate the danger of flying. This example illustrates: a. the availability heuristic b. the representativeness heuristic c. he confirmation bias d. overconfidence Answer: a; Moderate 203. A judgment strategy in which one uses the ease with which examples come to mind as the basis for judging how common events really are is called the _______ heuristic. a. availability b. representativeness c. confirmation d. frequency Answer: a; Easy 204. Stereotypes spring to mind easily. Therefore, we sometimes use them to judge the frequency of certain events such as crimes in a given neighborhood. This example BEST describes the use of the ________ heuristic. a. frequency b. salience c. confirmation d. availability Answer: d; Moderate 05. When people are asked which is more common, death by homicide or death by stroke, they often choose homicide because they simply hear more about murders t